I. Introduction

A. Computers and visual medium

Computers have revolutionized the way many people work. Artist. have also been affected by this change. The previsualization and visualization of artworks has been effected by the development of new tools. Historically artists have been interested in utilizing computers to investigate imaginary and concrete worlds through visualization.

B. What has happened? What is likely to happen?

A most interesting outcome of artists working with computers is the development of hybrid techniques, imagery and partnerships in the areas of the physical sciences.

As a result of the development of an interdisciplinary artistic network. institutions have been developing programs of study addressing a variety of visual and aesthetic interdisciplinary concerns.

C. The roles of educational institutions

The role of the institution is to provide an environment conducive to the investigation of visual and interactive applications of these newer technologies. The institution must also allow for the new technologies to become assimilated as tools for use in art-making and curriculum support.

Educational institutions can accelerate the integration of new technologies into the art-making process by encouraging exploratory and interdisciplinary research. Universities can play a major role in the dissemination and ultimately the creative development of future research projects.

The process of teaching as well as the process and product of making artworks is already being affected by the integration of computers into the classroom. The efficiency and interactivity that computers offer allow instructors to teach course material with their use as tools of instruction.

D. Purpose of document

The purpose of this document is to introduce educational institutions to current curricula utilizing computers in the arts. In addition, specific (preliminary) guideline recommendations are offered for many curriculum application areas.

In the interest of the development of uniform levels of expertise among students, two competency levels have been defined. Competency levels are suggested as a workable solution to the diverse functions and requirements that individual programs and courses play within the context of the educational institution as compared to other institutions. It is our goal to facilitate a comprehensive resource for administrators, instructors and students. It is not our intention to dictate what must be taught in any particular course but rather to offer guidance.

II. How to use this document

A. How document is organized

This document is divided into six parts. The first part consists of introductory material. The second is this section on how to use the document. The third includes basic, general information regarding the relationships between the visual arts, computer graphics and higher education.

Part four deals with specific operational considerations. These include determining goals and objectives in regards to computer graphics in the visual arts; relating these goals and objectives to students served by the program, to faculty, and to available or projected facilities and finances; working with the institutional library; evaluating and planning; and program administration.

The fifth part gives specific guidelines for academic programs. It lists the application areas of computer graphics within the visual arts; relates these application areas to curricula; defines terms and objectives for the curriculum recommendations; and finally discusses recommendations for a common body of knowledge and skills which could be assumed to have been learned by students at beginning, intermediate and advanced levels of study in computer graphics in the visual arts.

Part six discusses projections for the future, the role of art history and criticism in the teaching of computer graphics in the visual arts and research and advanced programs. Appendix I is the dream curriculum survey summary; appendix II is the computer graphics arts directory.

B. Using the document to determine and revise objectives

This document is intended for use by post-secondary institutions which currently offer or plan to offer courses, programs, certificates and/or degrees in computer graphics in the visual arts. Institutions which currently offer such courses, programs, certificates and/ or degrees may wish to compare the content of their offerings with the competency statements in part five, They may also wish to review their goals and objectives, referring to the questions and considerations in parts three and four.

C. Using the document to plan

Institutions which are planning to add computer graphics to existing visual art programs need to carefully consider where computer graphics fits into their current offerings. They should pay special attention to the section on operational considerations (part four), as well as the delineation of application areas and competency statements in part five.

III. Basic information

A. The visual arts

Art is a way of knowing. It is a way of apprehending the world first through perceiving what exists, and then re-ordering that perception for communicative purposes. Most of all, art is about seeing: seeing the physical outer world; seeing the inner, psychological dream world; seeing the artist's vision externalized into paint or clay or bronze or graphite or ink or any of the other media and materials that have found their way into artists' hands. Art has always relied on the technology of the times, from cave paintings done in earth pigments ground into fat, to modern synthetic pigments suspended in acrylic medium. In every era, the art that is made is influenced by and conditional on the available technologies. The revolution in seeing during the Renaissance relied as much on the recently developed techniques of oil paint as it did on a changing world view. Conversely, art and artists affect technology, as the needs of artists to convey a particular vision lead to inquiries into the properties of materials and media.

B. The computer

The computer is a fact of everyday life. It is used in banks, offices, manufacturing plants, telephone and television, music, cars and microwave ovens. Some people see computers as a dehumanizing threat, ready to supplant humans and human values in every area they enter. Others see computers as liberators, freeing humans from drudgery and allowing them to be fully creative "at the touch of a button." The truth is somewhere in between, as computers take over some tasks, reshape others and make new ones possible and/or necessary. The computer has been likened to both tool and medium, depending on how it is used. By itself, it is simply electronic circuitry. Coupled with appropriate software (programs) and input and output devices, the computer is a protean system that can mimic the traditional operations of any number of tasks. It has been likened to a "meta-tool," a tool which creates tools; a meta- medium, a medium which creates media,

C. The computer and the visual arts

In the hands of an artist, the computer is a tool that can be used in conjunction with off-the-shelf software and a variety of input and output equipment, both to mimic traditional methods and to interact efficiently with them in the areas of, for example, print, textile design, interior design, printmaking, photo- manipulation, film and video and graphic design. The computer is also a tool that, with the aid of a programming language, helps to create an environment of unlimited sets of visual possibilities, making possible new kinds of art that were not possible before. Computer graphics is quickly becoming essential to many professional artists. Through software that allows for electronic page layout, typesetting, image manipulation and color separation, computer graphics has become an integral component of graphic design. Drafting and drawing programs, as well as some 3D modeling and rendering software, are quickly moving from "acceptable" to "required" in architecture, interior, industrial and packaging design, and other fields in which it is necessary to bridge the gap between flat plans and elevations and a fully three- dimensional model. Animation programs help artists to create sophisticated animated sequences in everything from commercials to feature films.

The computer is also becoming increasingly important in the fine arts. Sculptors use the same kind of 3D modeling software finally available to industrial designers to explore forms and ideas before (or instead of) building maquettes. Painters, printmakers and photographers move images back and forth between physical media and the computer to discover and refine visual imagery difficult or impossible to realize in other ways. Other artists are exploring the interaction between the unique natures of the computer and of (he creative process to create new artforms that depend on the computer for their conception and existence.

D. Computer graphics and higher education

1. Overview of size, scope, nature of institutional involvement.

Approximately l75 to 200 art schools, two- and four-year colleges and universities offer degrees, certificates, programs and/ or courses in computer graphics in the visual arts. These courses and programs are offered through art departments which may specialize in fine arts, graphic design or both; computer science departments, which may cooperate with art departments; separate departments of computer graphics, which include both art and computer science components; other departments with an interest in visual communication such as communications, journalism, film and video, theater, architecture, interior design, etc; and interdisciplinary programs in computer graphics, which combine the resources of a variety of departments.

2. Issues.

There are some fundamental issues within and among these various programs in regard to computer graphics education in the visual arts. One area, in which passions tend to run high, is the question of whether artists should learn to write computer programs or use off-the-shelf hardware. In general, most interdisciplinary and many fine arts programs tend to favor the artist-as-programmer approach, while most graphic design-oriented programs favor the artist-as-user approach.

Another issue is the place that computer graphics has in the overall art education structure. Some argue that it is necessary to teach the basics first, with the customary tools and media, leaving computers for more advanced work. Others believe that as computers are becoming a ubiquitous tool in the visual arts, computer graphics deserves a place in the general foundations courses for all art students, along with graphite, charcoal and paint. They find that computer systems provide a natural vehicle for teaching students design principles, color theory and for stimulating creative thinking. Computers provide immediate feedback and can be used in a spontaneous, fluid manner for exploring the visual dynamics of a composition. Increasingly students are familiar with how computers work and can use them effectively in the learning process. More important, however, is the significant potential of the computer in the evolution and development of new modes of artistic expression. The computer is a multi-dimensional medium that provides the artist and designer with different modes of communicating or expressing concepts or ideas. These modes include visual imagery, text, sound or music and movement or animation. No other tool or medium provides this diversity of expression in one device. The computer studio allows the artist and designer to work in these different dimensions of human experience individually or simultaneously.

Among those who believe that an introductory, foundation course is essential to introduce all artists and designers to the potential of computer systems and to provide the understanding and skills necessary to integrate computers into the creative process in upper level courses, there is a difference of opinion as to whether computer graphics should be taught within the regular foundations course, or required of all students but taught in a separate course.

A third area of difference lies in the question of whether computer graphics can or should be a separate major, a specialization within the art major or simply integrated into courses as appropriate. Another area involves the physical location of and jurisdiction over facilities: should each department or specialty have its own computer graphics equipment, or should computing come under an institutional central administration? Other questions will assuredly arise within and among institutions.

Philosophical differences should be welcomed in a field where there is a crossover, due to the potential of developing new hybrid concepts and techniques. While each institution has to define its own answers to these and other questions, it is important to keep in view the integrative nature of computers, and keep alive the possibility that different answers may emerge at a later date.

a. Basic decisions.

The first decision to be made is whether or not to add computers to the existing art curriculum. If an institution plans to offer anything other than a traditional fine arts program, it would be difficult to do so without computers. This is particularly true at institutions which emphasize graphic design, industrial design, textile design or other more commercial areas, in which the computer is increasingly becoming a standard professional tool.

Once the decision is made to computerize, a several year plan should be developed. This plan should include, as much as possible, the foreseeable place and extent of computing in the visual arts curriculum, the purposes to which it will be put and the speed of implementation. It should be based on clear decisions in regards to the above-mentioned philosophical positions.

When developing such a plan, adjustments to the artistic climate, technological advances and new developments in academic interests should be expected and welcomed. The plan should be flexible, in order to take these changes into account.

b. Resource factors: personnel

Several factors need to be considered in the development of a plan for adding computer graphics to an art program. These factors include the availability of financial and personnel resources to implement such a plan. It would be appropriate for an institution to integrate all faculty in the development and allow for the literacy and development of all programs of study. In general, however, one person is primarily responsible to develop and implement a new program such as computer graphics. Is there someone on the faculty who is already knowledgeable about computer graphics, and is willing to take on the major responsibilities of writing and teaching the new curricula, specifying hardware and software and possibly maintaining a lab? If not, is someone willing to learn, so as to be able to take on these responsibilities? Alternatively, is the institution committed to hiring someone whose mission is specifically to develop the program? Furthermore, is the institution committed enough to the program to hire adequate support personnel, maintain and update hardware and software and provide the institutional recognition for service for the faculty member or members who create and implement this plan?

c. Resource factors: computers.

Another major factor to consider is the availability of computing resources both within and outside the department. Many schools have a single computing facility which serves many departments. Other schools have the resources, and are willing to use them, to establish specialized computer graphics laboratory/studios in each department that wants them. Another scenario provides some particularly expensive or specialized equipment at a central location, or at the location which most requires its services, with more general, less expensive equipment more widely dispersed. Still other institutions may require students to provide their own basic personal computers, with some graphics capability; more specialized technology would then be provided by the institution in one of the ways mentioned above. Decisions in these areas are not just a question of financial resources, but a question of how the institution at large sees its mission, and the accommodations the institution is willing to make to the unique design process of artists.

d. Other factors: artistic and pedagogical.

In addition to resources, there are artistic and pedagogical factors to consider when planning to add computing to the arts curriculum. There is a long learning curve associated with acquiring more than a rudimentary computer literacy. Students must often familiarize themselves with tools and processes before they can concentrate on aesthetic problems. This is similar to the problems encountered in photography, printmaking or other fields in which technical mastery and aesthetics combine.

A factor which is unique to computer graphics is the extent to which the artistic outcome is dependent on factors outside the artist's control. This is particularly true in the case of output devices, such as film recorders, plotters and printers. In general, these devices are made for the needs of industry rather than of art.

Issues of resolution, color fidelity. color longevity and archival process so far have been insufficiently addressed by the manufacturers of computer graphics equipment. Institutions need to consider providing a variety of output devices so that students can be made aware of their strengths and limitations, and use these capacities to enhance their work.

e. Impact of decisions on programs.

The ways in which these philosophical and logistical questions are answered will have a large impact on the extent to which the computer will pull together separate parts of an institution and to what extent it will disperse them and on the kind and quality of instruction offered. This is true both within a given department, and between departments. The availability of computing resources affects the ways that courses in computer graphics, or which make use of computer graphics, can be taught. Conversely, the decisions made regarding the place that computer graphics has in the arts curriculum affects decisions about resources. When computers are easily available, and when computer graphics is incorporated into the general arts curriculum, students are more likely to consider incorporating computer graphics into a variety of projects. Whether this is considered an asset or a liability lies in the institutional attitudes towards computer graphics in general, and the place that computer graphics holds within the overall objectives of the visual art program.

IV. Operational considerations

A. Determining goals and objectives

To use computers in the arts as a tool of inquiry and expression will take considerable commitment of time, resources and faculty development. The investment will need to be continuous as hardware and software develop and new applications appear.

The focus should be on teaching principles as well as techniques on the computer. The goal of the institution should be established before any specific plans are made. Does the school want to create literacy and integration into existing programs of study and go no further, or does it wish to not only integrate but also to establish a program with a commitment to research and development of an aesthetic in the area of computers and related technologies?

Specific software and hardware are not as important as the ideas and their development. If resources are limited, then one complete workstation would be a better investment than several limited units.

After goals are established a flexible supportive structure of faculty, staff, maintenance and resources should be organized and established with goals in mind. Regular evolution of the program and equipment needs to be balanced with the most effective methods of teaching this new technology. Small group teams, workshop setting, interdisciplinary subjects and interactive demonstrations should all be considered in finding the best balance of facilities and teaching styles.

B. Students, faculty, facilities, finances

1. Students.

Computer graphics can be used as an integral part of other majors or areas of art and design, as a content area within other majors or as a major on its own terms. All art students should have access to basic literacy on computers just like all students should know how to use a camera or sketchbook. There will be students who focus on the computer as their primary medium, but such use of the computer must grow out of the principles of inquiry and expression in art and design.

All students entering level I courses in computer graphics, or work in an area of art and design that incorporates level I competencies, would be expected to have completed a foundation level introduction to computers. Similarly, students entering courses at level II would be expected to have mastered the level I material. A major in computer graphics should include math, programming, aesthetics and art history as well as computer literacy.

There is an integral relationship between the objectives, resources and content of courses and programs, and the number of students that can be accommodated in such programs. For example, the size, expertise and other program commitments of the faculty influence the number, levels, frequency and sequence of course offerings. The number of workstations, the hours of availability to art students and the amount of technical support also influence which students and how many can be admitted to these programs.

Within any program, there is a community of faculty and student artists; a critical mass of individuals, both students and faculty, who are committed to the success of the program. This critical mass must be large enough to continue the program as some members leave and others are added and as facilities change, but not so large as to overwhelm the available resources.

2. Faculty.

Faculty who teach computer courses for artists need to understand art processes. It is best if the teachers are themselves artists and designers. Sometimes collaborative teaching among disciplines is appropriate.

The academic load of a faculty member teaching computer graphics should take into consideration the time spent maintaining equipment and researching in a continually developing field. Faculty and staff should be encouraged to attend conferences in order to take advantage of new information.

Classes need to be limited to an enrollment of l6 to 20 to maintain the interactive nature of teaching in the arts. Class sizes over 10 should be provided with teaching assistants to help students with technical problems.

In addition to full-time faculty, consideration should be given to inviting professional artists and designers in the community who use computer graphics in their work, to teach individual courses. Since computer graphics is such a large and complex field, this is especially important in those areas where the full- time faculty member might be less knowledgeable.

3. Facilities.

The following is a comprehensive environment for providing knowledge and skill building in a computer-assisted visual arts curriculum. While some programs may begin at a modest level of exposure to the technology, the progression of the student toward higher levels of proficiency is dependent on the environment provided. It is assumed that some environments will be primarily programming oriented while others will depend on available software products. It is further assumed that some environments will be specialized in one or more of the specific content areas of computer graphics, and will need to adjust these lists accordingly.

Beginning

Intermediate

Advanced

4. Financial realities and considerations.

Computing, especially computer graphics, is expensive. In addition to the high costs of establishing facilities, it is necessary to provide an ongoing budget for maintenance and upgrades. This includes providing a budget for technical staff for on-site repairs and installations; maintenance contracts with reputable suppliers in case of major hardware failures; expendable media and supplies such as disks, printer toner cartridges and inks, plotter pens, special papers, blank videotapes, film and processing for film recorders; software and hardware upgrades as new technologies become available.

Many schools fund labs through special technology fees. Others believe that computing time and facilities should be part of the institution's normal support facilities, as free to students and faculty as the library. Most expect the students to supply their own expendable supplies.

C. Library

At the most basic level there should be books and magazines in the collection that cover computer graphics in art, design, animation and architecture. The collection can be further developed by selected videotapes from the SIGGRAPH Video Review. These cover many applications of computer graphics and animation and have a great deal of the history of the subject. Titles for computer graphic reference materials are sometimes located in sections on science and education.

Faculty, staff and students need to be aware of reference material, videotapes and conferences to keep up with developments in the field. A member of the library staff should be in charge specifically of acquisitions in the field of computer graphics, and should be able to direct students and faculty to relevant research areas. It is important to maintain good contact between the library and faculty members, each of whom may have access to different information sources.

D. Program evaluation and planning

It is important to evaluate, on a regular basis, the existing functionality of the existing program concerning the effectiveness of the classroom, the effectiveness of the resource center and the effectiveness of the teaching aids (textbooks, manuals, slides, videotapes, etc.).

Planning needs to be updated and revised each year as software is rapidly expanding and improving. Long-range planning can focus on location of labs, equipment upgrades, technical support and the establishment of budgets.

Self-evaluation and review based on consultants and visiting computer artists will be helpful in planning the size, scope and nature of the direction of the program.

E. Administration and administrative support

The administration needs to be regularly informed of developments, achievements and needs in the area of research and teaching of computer graphics.

An internal administrator or coordinator needs to be supported to keep the program current, to attend one national conference a year and to help educate and assist faculty wanting to know more about the use of the computer.

V. Academic programs

A. Computer graphics applications

l. 2D applications

2. 3D applications

3. Animation

4. Interactivity

5. Interdisciplinary works

B. Computer graphics applications and curricula

1. Acquiring computer graphic skills.

The computer provides a unique studio environment that allows the artist and designer to work creatively with imagery, text, sound, music composition, movement or animation and the concept of interactivity. The computer is the hub of a wheel in which artists and designers express concepts and ideas in various dimensions of human experience such as sound or image, or in a multi- dimensional manner involving sound, image and animation. The computer can provide the vehicle for integrating different modes of expression. In addition computers provide the unique opportunity for creating interactive projects that allow the artist or designer to create systems that stimulate participation from the viewer. The computer is a multi-dimensional media. It is essential to educate students to think creatively in a variety of media. Artists and designers can create in an interdisciplinary mode using computers.

There have been many software and hardware developments that support these applications (see section V. a). At this time, there is tremendous diversity among the equipment that various educational programs have selected in order to support their curriculum, reflecting the variety that exists in the marketplace. For this reason, it is crucial that the equipment selected to support a computer related course be based on the theoretical content of that course so that the information remains transferable from machine to machine. It is often useful for a student to experience many different types of machines and software applications. Thus the student will be able to apply this theoretical and practical information in a way that both supports a broader understanding of the field and prepares herself/himself for the jobs that will come later.

As with the development of any creative work in the classroom, the problem solving process will vary from student to student and project to project. Within the arts, some students may prefer to develop sketches on paper, others may prefer to do preliminary work on the computer. Some students may spend most of their time exploring options on the computer and accomplish their finished work in the time remaining. Others may spend little time exploring and a lot of time refining their work. Also if the working environment includes curriculum and/or expertise in areas outside of traditional art curricula, then other factors should be considered such as working styles appropriate to accomplish those projects. For example working needs will vary within an environment where some students are performing extensive programming projects along with students who are utilizing paint packages. Exploration for any tool, and especially one as complex as a computer, deserves adequate working time and appropriate working conditions.

It is useful to plan for these different modes of working in order to accommodate as many working styles as possible and encourage the highest quality products. This will affect the access students have to the lab, the amount of time allotted per session, and the ergonomics of the working environment such as privacy and the size and comfort of the workspace.

2. Nature of basic competence with common body of knowledge and skills necessary for traveling into specialities and sub-specialities.

The foundations course establishes an interdisciplinary mode of thinking and creating using computers. Whether the program chooses to have a separate foundation level computer graphics program or integrate computer applications and techniques into many existing foundation courses, basic aesthetic and technical skills are important to master so that students can approach the application areas awaiting them. The following sections describe more specific recommendations for foundation level competencies as well as a first and second level of sequential curriculum recommendations in specific curriculum areas utilizing computer graphics. Some experience with applications in two-dimensions, three-dimensions, animation, interaction and an introduction to the potential of interdisciplinary work in computer graphics will prepare them for the many job options available currently or emerging in the near future. Job possibilities are developing within the arts as well as with interdisciplinary teams. In many cases, projects involving groups of students, investigating an interdisciplinary problem will prepare students for jobs and research projects in the field of computer graphics.

Interdisciplinary issues and challenges are at least partially determined by the disciplines defined within the educational institution. As institutional structures differ among professional art schools, two-year colleges, four-year colleges and universities, the word "interdisciplinary" will refer to different issues and problems. Interdisciplinary issues by nature are a result of collaboration between disciplines. Because computer use has fostered new disciplinary relationships between and within many areas, possibilities are available for students and professionals to develop skills and knowledge that cut across disciplinary boundaries and to communicate and collaborate with others of differing but complementary expertise. This has affected the role of the artist. Computers are inviting artists into the mainstream of society and many schools have re-evaluated their current curriculum in order to accommodate and encourage these inter- disciplinary, cross-disciplinary and collaborative arrangements.

C. Justifications and teaching strategies

1. The importance of the use of computers in art and design

2. Drawbacks to using the computer in art and design

3. Suggested strategies for teaching

D. Definitions

The following recommendations focus on content and functions, not teaching methodologies, specific courses or curricular plans. They are organized on principles with long-term applications, recognizing that new ideas and capabilities will influence specific implementations of these principles.

The following terms are to be understood as follows:

E. Common body of knowledge and skills

l. Introduction.

We have chosen to propose a set of foundation skills, whether they are presented as part of the general arts foundation or separately. When computer graphics foundations are taught separately from the general arts foundation, specialized application areas can be isolated.

After completion of the foundation program, it is assumed that the student is actively engaged in the pursuit of a major in the arts. Curricular recommendations for level one and level two of computer graphics study cover different areas of specialization, with an emphasis on dimensional differentiation. Recommendations include 2-D, 3-D, animation and interactivity. Special emphasis was placed on the following application areas, acknowledging that this is not an exhaustive list: 1) graphic design, 2) photography, 3) animation (film and video), 4) sculpture, 3- D modeling and design, 5) interactive and interdisciplinary art.

2. Foundations.

The foundations recommendations are intended to be part of the general foundation year curriculum for all art students, not only those whose intended specialty is or will be computer graphics. They are understood to be a central, minimal core of information regarding computers and computer graphics in the visual arts.

3. Level I and level II competencies.

The level I and II competency recommendations are the result of working groups whose focus was in the following areas:

a. Photography, animation, film and video
b. Graphic design
c. Sculpture, 3D modeling and design, interactive and interdisciplinary works

a. Photography, animation, film and video.

The following competencies at level I and level II come from the working group which considered computer graphics from the point of view of photography, film and video and animation. Some of these competencies will be more applicable to one or another of these fields. Individual programs will need to adjust the competencies according to their specific needs.

Level I

After completion of the foundations course, it is assumed that the student is actively engaged in pursuit of a major in the arts. The next level of study in computer processes would address the following issues. Level I competencies are understood to be skills and concepts which could be integrated into a film and video, photography or animation program which concentrated on computer graphics animation. This is understood as a minimum, a core body of knowledge which could reasonably be assimilated by intermediate students, following and building upon the skills and concepts of the foundation level.

Level II

Level II competencies would extend and develop those skills and understandings acquired in level I as follows.

b. Graphic design.

The following guidelines for competencies at level I and level 11 were submitted by the working group which considered computer graphics from the point of view of, primarily, graphic design. Many of these competencies will be applicable in a variety of fields which work primarily with two-dimensional media including, for example, printmaking and textile design. Individual programs will need to adjust the competencies according to their specific needs.

Level I

Level I competencies are understood to be skills and concepts which could be integrated into the traditional graphic design curriculum. This is understood as a minimum, a core body of knowledge which could reasonably be assimilated by students within the first year of a graphic design course of study, following and building upon the skills and concepts of the foundation level.

Level II

Level II further develops basic concepts and skills from earlier levels. At this level the student would gain knowledge from a variety of courses, any or all of which might include a computer component. The graphic design student should acquire the following computer graphics competencies in conjunction with traditional hand skills and a developing aesthetic sense.

c. Sculpture, three-dimensional modeling and design, interactive and interdisciplinary works.

The following competencies at level I and level II come from the working group which considered computer graphics from the point of view of sculpture, three-dimensional modeling and design, interactive and interdisciplinary works. Within this group, suggestions were made in two subsections. The first subsection will cover sculpture, three-dimensional modeling and design. The computer enables the artist to simulate real objects and environments as well as represent objects and environments which are not intended to exist in the real world. It allows the creation of imaginary forms, where real world constraints such as gravity, scale and engineering criteria do not apply.

The second subsection will cover interactive and interdisciplinary works. Interactive projects provide the opportunity for the viewer to participate in the process of accessing and ordering information and ideas. The participant has the opportunity to explore a body of information, a narrative or a sequence of images, text and sounds by choosing a path through the information, or by making decisions about what directions or alternatives to choose. Thus the viewers or participants create a unique experience that includes their own ideas. Examples of these projects include HyperCard projects, public information systems, games, interactive installations, kinetic sculpture and interactive environments. Some of these competencies will be more applicable to one or another of these fields. Individual programs will need to adjust the competencies according to their specific needs.

Three-dimensional modeling and design, sculpture.

Level I

After completion of the foundations course, it is assumed that the student is actively engaged in pursuit of a major in the arts. The next level of study in computer processes would address the following issues. Competencies are understood to be skills and concepts which could be integrated into a sculpture or three- dimensional modeling and design program which concentrated on computer graphics. Interactive and interdisciplinary works may be applied within the context of other existing programs or offered as a separate option. These suggested guidelines are understood as a minimum core body of knowledge which could reasonably be assimilated by students within the first level of study, following and building upon the skills and concepts of the foundation level.

Level II

Interactive-interdisciplinary works.

Level I

Level II

l. Ability to explore and experiment with new media in order to develop new forms of art.

VI. Futures issues

A. Developing computer graphics in the context of programs in visual arts majors at the undergraduate and graduate levels

1. Current applications.

While it is true that the computer is changing and integrating traditional disciplines by interconnecting them, art education is still organized according to them. The computer is impacting traditional art fields. It is transforming graphic design and creating many new career opportunities for adequately trained designers. Presentation graphics is another field in which it is having a similar impact. The computer is essential in film/video and is becoming so in photography. Applications in apparel design, textile design, package and product design, interior and architectural design utilize computers in the conceptual development and design process. The authors felt that it was time to attempt to pull together experts from every post-secondary level and many computer applications in the arts in order to assess current curriculum content and issues.

The development of programs with curriculum incorporating these competency level recommendations for art and design is a very complex process. New computer applications for the arts are emerging continuously. Institutional needs, goals and expectations vary from one educational climate to another. Graduate programs are beginning to identify and address interdisciplinary, cross disciplinary and complex technological development for visual communication and self expression. Applications utilizing telecommunications as a form of visual expression are emerging on the undergraduate and graduate levels. Teaching and learning should be reexamined to ensure that advanced computing and telecommunications equipment is used to increase the learning capacity of students and faculty contact with students.

2. Projected applications.

Faculty and student expertise levels are gaining ground and subsequently expectations for competencies at educational levels will change and, most probably, render our "standards" obsolete within the next few years. More sophisticated recommendations will follow. Incorporating emerging technologies will continue to be an evolutionary process. Many industries, such as the ones mentioned above, will continue to upgrade equipment to adjust to technical developments in the field. New applications will emerge. Three-dimensional design applications will become increasingly viable as a result of new developments in three- dimensional input and output devices.

3. Experimental applications.

As telecommunications have become more sophisticated, society has become increasingly networked. Capabilities for shared expertise without physical proximity will enable students to develop projects with other "network pals." Text and graphic files will be transferred over phone lines and editing works may become very interactive. Projects involving cross disciplinary and collaborative expertise may be accomplished via this network and output devices networked and available at many locations may enhance the conceptual and physical understanding of the solution to complex challenges. Potential for the development of interactive virtual realities will offer powerful expressive tools as well as environments for editing designs in three-dimensions without the limitations of physical attributes. When iterative transitions between virtual reality to physical reality become available to students then information gathered from both sources will profoundly effect the design process and product in three-dimensional work.

B. Art history and criticism in computer graphics

As new forms of visual communication develop and emerge, new methods for display and dissemination become critical. Art museums and galleries have been offered new and complex challenges in order to accommodate unusual requirements for the display of these works. The interactive nature of many of these new works makes classification, definition and therefore, criticism, difficult. The principle methods of examining and interpreting works of art as developed by art historians since the nineteenth century need to be reexamined. New ways of looking at art through the use of such computer tools as: expert systems, computer analysis of pigments and other materials and electronic search and retrieval of archived documents will be useful in an attempt to analyze the old and the new and the emerging.

C. Research and other advanced programs

Advanced programs are pursuing research in some of these applications: artificial intelligence including expert systems; user interface design; customized software tools; and investigations into hypermedia and authoring tools. This research may be located in diverse areas within any given institution, as it relies on expertise in many fields of knowledge. Significant resources, both personnel and equipment, are optimum for pursuing such advanced research.

General curriculum areas might include:

Historical context: the historical basis for understanding the relationship of science and technology to the visual arts.

Critical context: the analysis of critical discourses, including structuralist and postmodernist thought, which formulate our understanding of the act of visual representation. Of particular concern is how technology affects these methods of visualization and influences the cultural and societal expectations of visual representation.

Philosophical context: the moral and ethical problems associated with electronic and digital media in the visual arts, its cultural impact as visual media and the public opinion and policy which in turn influences these media.

Applied/practical context: intensive studio experiences in the use of electronic and digital processes as design tools for the graphic designer, the visual communicator, the photographer, the videographer, the computer artist or any other creative artist desiring the use of these technologies for artforms.

Computer Graphics, Volume 24, Number 3, June 1990. pp. 78-86.